Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of thousands of synthetic fluorinated organic molecules which have been widely utilized since the 1950s. This has led to PFAS being released into the environment in large quantities, where no natural degradation pathways exist, leading to accumulation in rivers, soil and ground water. We are especially interested in PFAS in rivers, accumulating as a result of e.g. landfill leachate, industrial discharges, wastewater treatment plants, stormwater runoff and airport firefighting foams. The extent of this pollution in Europe has been collated by The Forever Pollution Project 2023. The vast majority of freshwater sources have >> 10 ng/L of PFASs (a proposed upper limit for safety). PFAS has been linked to a wide variety of life-threatening health conditions (Wee and Aris 2023).
Whilst there is activity to remove PFAS from drinking water the issue of removing PFAS from river systems has not been explored. PFAS in rivers results in harm to fish and aquatic invertebrates, with the problem being moved up the food chain if the fish are consumed by animals and humans. Rivers are also the primary source of drinking water. With the help of our project partners, The Rivers Trust we will identify local sites in the Midlands where PFAS levels are likely to be high and a source of concentrated PFAS based on proximity to e.g. landfill waste site, airport, waste-water treatment plant, etc. The PFAS identity and levels in the water will be mapped using mass spectrometry techniques (Al Amin, M. et al. 2020), such measurements will be made repeatedly to look for variations e.g. after a heavy rain fall, time of year, industrial activity etc. PFAS capture methods suitable for incorporation into an identified PFAS river “hot spot” will be investigated for efficiency and include e.g. use of adsorbents such as ion exchange resin, activated carbon (Jin et al. 2021) or the more sustainable, cheaper biochars. Such methods will be coupled with electrochemical advanced oxidation techniques (Amerio-Cox et al. 2025), which have shown to be extremely promising for the complete destruction of PFAS i.e. breakage of all C-F bonds.
Figure 1: Overview of the PFAS river water project: PFAS in UK river water “hot-spots” will be identified and quantified. Methods for pre-concentration will be assessed for eventual removal by electrochemical destruction methods.
This project is not suitable for CASE funding
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The project requires use of liquid chromatography – mass spectrometry (LC-MS), and related MS techniques, to identify and quantify different PFAS in river water. There will be work carried out both in the laboratory and in the field and for the latter the student will be trained in environmental sampling. For adsorption studies, different materials will be investigated and MS methods used again to determine efficacy of removal from the water system. The most efficient materials will be integrated in deployable (flow-powered) filters. For PFAS destruction, electrochemical advanced oxidation approaches will be trialled, using electrodes, such as boron doped diamond and Magneli-phase titanium sub-oxides. The student will be trained in electrochemical cell use and electrochemical methods for fluoride ion monitoring, as C-F bonds are broken during PFAS destruction. Students with backgrounds in one of the following would be suited to this project: earth science / environmental science / chemistry / analytical science.
DRs will be awarded CENTA Training Credits (CTCs) for participation in CENTA-provided and ‘free choice’ external training. One CTC can be earned per 3 hours training, and DRs must accrue 100 CTCs across the three and a half years of their PhD.
The student will receive the required analytical training from experts within the research group (in analysis, electrochemistry and LC-MS) and from experts (Dr. Lijiang Song) within the wider department, especially when considering use of multiple MS techniques. Dr. Simon Browning (Rivers Trusts) will provide training in the environmental sampling (collection) of water sources. The students will also be trained in how to analyse correctly the data collected and errors. Training will also be given in 3D printing for electrochemical cell preparation along with skills in presentation, report and paper writing.
The Macpherson group is highly collaborative working with a large range of partners, including industrial and charity/government organisations. The group has two current collaborations which are relevant to this proposed work: (1) An ongoing relationship with the Rivers’ Trust to develop low-cost sensors for citizen science, this collaboration would provide the student with training in the collection of freshwater river samples. (2) Work with our local water authority (Severn Trent) investigating electrochemical PFAS destruction technologies related to drinking water. We are also developing a collaboration with the Environment Agency related to this PhD proposal.
Year 1: Sampling and analysis of UK river water systems, development of adsorption methods
Year 2: Continued sampling, further development of adsorption methods, start work on destruction technologies
Year 3: Continued work on destruction technologies, move to field trials of defined methodologies
Year 4 (6 months): Continued field trials. Writing PhD thesis
Note from Year 1 onwards there will be engagement with the Rivers’ Trust. As the project progresses there will be opportunities to test the developed technologies in real conditions.
Amerio-Cox, M. et al. 2025. Investigation of Short Chain PFAS Degradation Efficiency Using Free-Standing Boron Doped Diamond Electrodes at High Current Density in a Flow Cell. ACS Electrochemistry. Available at: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acselectrochem.5c00121 [Accessed: 10 September 2025].
Al Amin, M. et al. 2020. Recent advances in the analysis of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)—A review. Environmental Technology & Innovation 19, p. 100879. doi: 10.1016/J.ETI.2020.100879.
Jin, T., Peydayesh, M. and Mezzenga, R. 2021. Membrane-based technologies for per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) removal from water: Removal mechanisms, applications, challenges and perspectives. Environment International 157, p. 106876. doi: 10.1016/J.ENVINT.2021.106876.
The Forever Pollution Project. 2023. Available at: https://foreverpollution.eu/map/ [Accessed: 10 September 2025].
Wee, S.Y. and Aris, A.Z. 2023. Revisiting the “forever chemicals”, PFOA and PFOS exposure in drinking water. npj Clean Water 2023 6:1 6(1), pp. 1–16. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-023-00274-6 [Accessed: 10 September 2025].
For more information contact: Prof. Julie Macpherson ([email protected]), Dr Joshua Tully ([email protected]), Dr Rory Downahm ([email protected]) and Dr. Simon Browning ([email protected]). For more information on the Warwick Electrochemistry and Interfaces Group see: www.warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/chemistry/research/electrochemistry.
To apply to this project:
Applications must be submitted by 23:59 GMT on Wednesday 7th January 2026.